Running Head:Empowerment and Gender Equality

Empowerment and Gender Equality in Developing Countries

EMMANUEL ALOIS TURUKA

WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY

Main Argument

Empowerment and Gender Equality has helped women in developing countries (Sub-Saharan) Africa, in gaining access to participate decision making bodies in the local government. Progress in promoting gender equality and empowerment of women in local government has been hampered by different problems. Therefore The success of all these efforts will typically, depend more on the willingness of government on formulating policies which would eradicate the discrimination practices between men and women which still taking place in the society.

Introduction.

In most literatures it is clearly explained that Inequality between men and women arising from the unequal division of power in the society. As the World Bank 2001 report pointed out that,” In almost all developing countries women do not possess the same legal, social and economic opportunities, in power and political voices”. According to this report empowerment and gender inequality if well utilized are regarded as an important vehicle for increasing women's representation and advancing women’s rights.

It should be born in our mind that Women play a significant role in the development of Africa economies which is the foundation of politics and decision making. Despite all the effort they do still they lack an opportunity to be in decision making bodies because of traditional customs and modern segregation that women are inferior and they need to stay home. This situation tells that empowerment of women has not been fully integrated into policy formulation and project design. More efforts like capacity building and other measure needs to implement in eradicating the gaps between men and women in, economic, social and political life so that they can enjoy all opportunities like me.

Definitions of important terms;

The term empowerment has different meanings depending on the socioeconomic, political and cultural context in which it is presented. World Bank defines empowerment as the expansion of freedom of choices and actions and increasing one’s authority and control over the resources and decision that affects one life. (World Bank 2001). The core of the meaning of women’s empowerment lies in the ability of a woman to control her own destiny. Kabeer (2001), whose definition is the most widely accepted, defines empowerment as “the expansion of people’s ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them” (Kabeer, 2001: 86). In other words Empowerment - is about people -both women and men- taking control over their lives: setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-confidence, solving problems and developing self-reliance, and expressing their voice. It is both a process and an outcome. No one can empower another: only the individual can empower herself or himself to make choices or to speak out. However, some institutions can support processes that can nurture self-empowerment of relegated individuals or groups.

On the other hand gender equality is defined as equal empowerment and participation for both men and women in all spheres of public and private life. This does not imply that both sexes are the same but rather that they are equal in rights and dignity. The emphasis here is that gender equality must be constantly fought for, protected and encouraged in order eliminating the pervasive discrimination experienced by most women and attaining more equal participation of men and women in the life of the community

Literature Review

According to reports on the Political Empowerment of Women (1999), it was cleanly explained in 1995 only 10%  of the members of legislative bodies were women and in 1999 there was an increase 0f 1% (11%) of women in decision making. In trying to solve the problem women activists came up with Beijing Conference which had two goals; first “take measures to ensure women’s access to and full participation in power structures and decision making” and second, increase women’s capacity to participate in decision-making and leadership and women should hold 50% of managerial and decision making posts by 2000. In accomplishing this mission decentralization was used as one of major platform of involving women at grassroots level to enter into decision-making.

Before the Beijing Conference, it was evident that women played only a small role a small role in the power and decision making structures in their countries. The goal of the Beijing platform was to reverse the situation of women by creating strategies to ensure equal representation of women at all levels.

According to Heise and Ellsberg (1999) around the world at least one woman in every three has been beaten coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime. The core of the concept of empowerment lies in the ability of the women to control her own destiny. UNECA, 2004a; UNECA forthcoming, Longwe, 2000, World Bank, 2001, Sen, 1993 pointed out that, It is important to assess achievement in gender equality and empowerment within the framework of four broad interrelated areas: economic, social, political participation and women’s human rights (as shown in the table below)

Table 1. Overview of the different dimensions of gender inequality

Dimension of  capability	Form of gender inequality
Economic participation	Gender discrimination in access to and control over resources such as land, property, agricultural inputs, extension services, employment, and a wide range of livelihood opportunities. Women and girls are disadvantaged
Social participation	Gender discrimination in access to essential public services such as education, health, water, energy and social security and protection, community and family support.
Political participation	Gender discrimination in participating in decision-making processes, e.g. in political institutions and policy-making organizations, consultation, and the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. African women do not always participate in public and private (in the home) decision-making spheres to bring their priorities and needs into the agenda.
Women’s human rights	Women’s human rights are human rights violations that women face simply by virtue of being a woman. Women suffer various human rights violations that men do not, such as being deprived of schooling, forced marriage, and violence against women.

According to the ILO, 2008 Economic participation Employment report pointed out that the difference between female and male employment-to-population ratios were 22.7 percentage points in 2007 as well as in 1997. Women continue to face considerable barriers in African labor markets as a result of lack of education, inadequate access to training, discrimination, and cultural attitudes about their role in the workplace. The major challenges affecting the achievement of gender parity in formal employment include the low educational level of women and girls; lack of skills; labor laws that still disadvantage women in most countries and the continuous heavy burdens of unpaid domestic work, childbearing and childcare, which restrict the time and energy available for income-earning activities. 

Women in Africa experience greater challenges in accessing decent jobs than men. Women’s share of employment in the formal sector is still lower relative to men and their pay is on average lower than men’s pay for the same work. But the question still remains that there are still mixing outcomes to the evidence on how women are affected by those decentralization policies, and the extent to which they have been involved in shaping the implementation and results of those policies which indicates that women still face significant challenges at the local level. The evidence of this is the absence of a strong network between women councilors and women’s organizations which continues to rob women in local governments of a valuable source of support and encouragement.

Main discussion;

Gender disparities still persist in most of the developing countries as I have pointed before, but For real development to be efficient and effective both women and men should equally participate in the decisions processes that shape their lives. As  Rowlands 1995 argues that Empowerment is not only about opening up access to decision making but also include processes that lead people to perceive themselves as able entitled to occupy that decision making space. In other words the gender gap in earnings persists and women’s jobs tend to enjoy less social protection and employment rights than do men’s jobs. The differences between females and males are interpreted by society to create a set of social expectations that defines the behavior that are appropriate for women and men and that determine women’s and men’s differential  access to rights resources and power in society. The numbers of women in policy or decision making institutions cannot be taken to be the sole indicator of empowerment of women. The impact of women’s empowerment cannot be measured by the closing of gaps in parliament but by the amount of power and influence they wield towards changing the conditions of women in the country especially in rural areas. Our main discussion so far is how much progress has been made in removing these obstacles?

Empowerment and gender inequality if well utilized can benefit women by creating greater opportunities for women to express their views and exert influences in decision making at the local level. It will also fuel women’s empowerment and Promote gender equity; consider enhancing mechanism of participation and partnership should increase the effectiveness through the mechanism of full participation make sure that policy formulation resources management and service provision monitoring evaluation and feedback. The partnership between women, men and government must be based on mutual trust and understanding of the various actors, acknowledges that each has both strengths and weaknesses. Each actor must enable the other actors in their legitimate roles and hold them accountable if they step outside their legitimate mandates. Gender inequalities exist because of discrimination in the family and societal institutions and cultural and religious norms that perpetuate stereotypes, practices and beliefs that are detrimental to women. Khan (2003) points out increases popular participation in decision-making because it brings government closer to people, making it more accessible and knowledgeable about local conditions and more responsive to people’s demands. Central governments, located far away and preoccupied mostly with national and regional issues, fall short of adequately and efficiently providing services essentially local in nature.

Successful case of democratic decentralization and empowerment case in Africa: Rwanda

Over the last decades gender issue and women’s empowerment have received a remarkable attention on global. Good news about some African countries (Rwanda, Mozambique, South Africa. Burundi, Tanzania Uganda etc.) have attained 30% and above according to Beijing goal about women's representation of women in national parliaments such shown in the table below,

Rwanda is one of successful case with the highest women representation, as the President Paul Kagame during the official opening of a gender –training workshop for Parliamentarians in 1999 said that.  “It is imperative to our lawmakers, policymakers and implementers to have an objective and correct analysis of the gender question in order to design appropriate correctional policies and programs. The question of gender equality in our society needs a clear and critical evaluation in order to come up with concrete strategies to map the future development in which men and women are true partners and beneficiaries. My understanding of gender is that it is an issue of good governance, good economic management and respect of human rights” Peace Uwineza and Elizabeth Pearson 2009

  

Table 8. Female representation in parliament

Country	% Women	Quota
Rwanda	48.8	30% Reserved Seats - indirectly related Voluntary party quotas
Mozambique	34.8	Voluntary party quotas
South Africa	32.8	Voluntary party quotas
Burundi	30.5	Legislated quota for 30% women candidates on party
Tanzania	30,4	30% reserved seats
Uganda	29.8
Namibia	26.9

Female representation in parliament Source: UNECA 2008c

In justifying women in Rwanda have representation in very serious positions; it is worth noting that the President of the Supreme Court of Rwanda and the Minister of Justice are both women, as is the Executive Secretary of the Gacaca courts. Of the 12 judges on the Supreme Court, 5 are women giving a representation of 41.7%. Further, at the local administration level, under the decentralization arrangement, women occupy 26% of the posts on the executive councils of each province. According to Peace Uwineza and Elizabeth Pearson 2009) they observe that In 2003 Rwanda elected 48, 8% women to its lower house of parliament giving in the world’s highest percentage of women in a national legislature. In 2008 again women earned 56 %of seats in the lower house

With all the increase of women's representation do we have a quality of women in decision making? Has women’s participation made a difference to decision making? Although some of African countries have made some progress in women's representation in parliament and ministries, it is important to note that this higher representation of women has not yet systematically led to adequate budgets, institutional frameworks and policies for implementing gender program for gender equality (UNECA, 2007). The major challenges affecting effective participation of the women include illiteracy and lack of confidence that make the women unable to effectively articulate the issues and make contributions; gender relations of power and party politics. T

What should be done in making sure that empowerment and Gender Equity work for women?

—  Empowerment and Gender Equality are a necessary condition for women's development but, not sufficient;

—  Most of women lack of self-confidence and prevailing cultural and social attitudes

—  Effective advocacy and lobbying strategies are also needed to ensure that more women attain top decision making positions as a natural result of their skills capacity.

—  The partnership must be based on mutual trust and understanding of the various actors,

The above issues are very important for women's development. Empowerment is about changing unequal institutional relationships to equity relationship. Social Institutions which govern our democratic and economic development to all are very important in helping women in reaching and enjoying equality. Such Institutions are government policies, traditional norms and patterned behavior that discriminate women. The institutions that affect women’s lives are formal and informal. Formal institutions include the laws and rules embedded in state, private sector and civil society organizations at the local, national and global levels as well as international organizations.

Changing unequal institutional relations depends more on the mutual relationship between men and women in order to improve and change the laws, procedures, regulations, values, and ethics and are not benefiting women. Promoting affirmative action as an important strategy in bringing about transformation, and creating a critical mass of women in decision-making positions.

We also need a strong women's association to push and establish policies like things quotes for women, in different decision making bodies which will help to bring more women in political atmospheres and in economic development.

Together as the nation we need to review and challenge electoral processes and discriminatory practices against women. In addition, setting up a central fund for women’s political activities would also encourage women to aspire for leadership positions. For example, in Zambia, a campaign fund was set up to help women candidates. Ensuring that the legal policy framework allows for a constitution that promotes equality between the sexes as a base for all laws and regulations.

It is crucial to undertake inclusive participatory approaches in policy development that involve women as equal partners. In some countries laws that promote gender equality are in place; however the lack of enforcement of such laws leads to the perpetuation of gender inequalities and violence against women. In some countries, laws are in place, but interpretation of these laws is lacking and as such, they are not enforced. Promoting gender equality requires a multi-sectoral approach with all the sectors playing their role.

Conclusion

Empowerment and Gender Equality is a necessary condition, not sufficient; but the success of Affirmative Action with respect to gender balance can lead to positive changes with. It is true that most of women lack of self-confidence and prevailing cultural and social attitudes, problems that are often interlinked. A vice mayor for gender in a district in Butare summarized the problem as follows: Women always consider themselves inferior to men, and this came as a result of some cultural beliefs that women were created to be wives and take care of children.

The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of their social, economic and political status are essential factors in the achievement of both transparent and accountable government and administration, as well as the attainment of sustainable development. Achieving the goal of equal participation of women and men in decision-making provides a balance which more accurately reflects the composition of society and is needed in order to strengthen democracy and promote its proper functioning. Women in politics and decision-making positions contribute to redefining political priorities, placing new items on the political agenda which reflect and address women’s gender-specific concerns, values and experiences, and provide new perspectives on mainstream political issues. Without the active participation of women and the incorporation of their perspectives at all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved.

From the discussion it is cleanly that form Africa countries show that some progress has been made in the area of women’s political empowerment particular in terms of increased awareness and sensitivity to women’s to women’s issues. A lot still needs to be done to increase women’s representation in policy and decision making to increase the knowledge skills and dexterity of women power policy and decision making. Effective advocacy and lobbying strategies are also needed to ensure that more women attain top decision making positions as a natural result of their skills capacity.

References

Africa, UNCFSP-TELP(United Negro College Fund Special Programs—Tertiary Education Linkages Project) Publication.Høgaard, L..Norris, P. (2000). “Breaking the barriers:  

Gumbi, R.V. (2006). “Women in higher education leadership in The 21st century: address at the launch of WHEEL,”September 2005, Protea Hotel President, Capetown. In UNCFSP-TEL). (2006). 

“Gender equity development in higher education in south africa.” South positive discrimination policies for women.” In J. Klausen, & C. S. Maier (Eds.), Has Liberalism Failed Women? Parity, Quotas and Political Representation. (Ch.10)New York.: St.Martin’s

Press. Nzomo, M. (1997). “Kenyan women in politics and public decision making.” In G.Mikell (Ed.), African feminism:the politics of survival in sub-saharan Africa.  Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Google Book Retrieved from  http://books.google.co.za, pp. 232-256.

Sadie,Y.(2005). “Women in political decision-making in the sadc region.” Agenda, No. 65, 17-31. Bird, R. and Vaillancourt, F., eds, 1999. Fiscal Decentralization in Developing Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Kabeer, Naila.( 2001). “Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment”, in Discussing Women’s Empowerment-Theory and Practice, Sida Studies No. 3, Stockholm: 

NovumGrafiska AB Kabeera, Eric. Rwanda tops region in infant, maternal health (New Times, Kigali – Rwanda, Monday 1st of November, 2010: http://www.newtimes.co.rw/

ILO, (2008) Global Employment Trends for Women, Geneva

International Plan of Action on Ageing, UNECA, Addis Ababa.

Voice, World Bank Research Report, Washington, D.C.

UNECA (2004a). The African Gender and Development Index.  (ECA) Addis Ababa.

UNECA, (2008c), 

The State of Older People in Africa –2007: Regional review and appraisal of the Madrid

Sen A, (1993) Capability and well-being, in Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum (eds.), The quality of life, Oxford, Clarendon Press.

Report of the Inter-Agency Committee on Women and Gender Equality on its fifth session, UN Administrative Committee on Co-ordination, 6 March 2000; ACC/2000/3

World Bank, (2000), Can Africa Claim the 21st Century?, The World Bank, Washington DC.

World Bank   Engendering Development Through Gender Equality in Rights, resources and voices 2001 Peace Uwineza and Elizabeth Pearson Edited by Elizabeth (2009). Powley Sustaining Women’s Gains in Rwanda: The Influence of Indigenous Culture and Post-Genocide Politics